Seventeenth Century Shifts: Puritanism,
Restoration, and Literary Voices
This blog is written as a task assigned by the Head of the Department of English (MKBU), Prof. & Dr. Dilip Barad, aligned with our syllabus.
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Introduction
The seventeenth century in England witnessed two strikingly different literary climates: the Puritan Age (1620–1660) and the Restoration Age (1660–1700). The Puritan period, deeply shaped by religious austerity and political upheaval, reflected moral seriousness and spiritual reflection. In contrast, the Restoration era celebrated wit, pleasure, and worldly concerns, breaking away from Puritan rigidity. These shifts were not merely literary fashions; they were deeply tied to political power struggles, religious authority, and cultural transformations.
The Puritan Age and Its Literary Echoes
The Puritan Age in England was a period defined by intense religious conviction and a strict moral code. Following the reign of James I, the rise of Puritanism, with its emphasis on individual conscience and biblical authority, significantly influenced the political and social climate, culminating in the English Civil War and the Interregnum. This environment profoundly shaped the literature of the time.
One prominent genre was the religious epic and allegory. John Milton’s monumental Paradise Lost (1667, though conceived earlier) exemplifies this. While published after the Restoration, its genesis lies firmly within a mind steeped in Puritan theology and grappling with themes of sin, redemption, and divine justice. The poem’s grandeur and its exploration of moral choices reflect the Puritan seriousness of purpose.
Another significant trend was the prevalence of sermons, theological treatises, and spiritual autobiographies. Works like John Bunyan’s Grace Abounding to the Chief of Sinners offer personal accounts of spiritual struggles and conversions, reflecting the Puritan focus on inner experience and the individual's relationship with God. These writings, though not always considered "literary" in the traditional sense, were widely read and shaped the intellectual landscape.
Furthermore, the era saw the development of polemical literature addressing the political and religious controversies of the time. Pamphlets and tracts debated issues of church governance, royal authority, and individual liberties. While much of this writing was directly tied to immediate concerns, it honed rhetorical skills and engaged a broad reading public, contributing to a culture of literary engagement with public life.
The Restoration's Influence on Literature
The Restoration Age, beginning with the return of Charles II in 1660, marked a dramatic shift away from Puritan austerity. A reaction against the perceived constraints of the Interregnum fueled a culture that valued wit, social interaction, and a more secular outlook. This new climate deeply influenced its literature.
Restoration Comedy, often referred to as the Comedy of Manners, flourished during this period. Playwrights like William Wycherley (The Country Wife) and William Congreve (The Way of the World) crafted witty and often satirical plays that explored the intricacies of social relationships, sexual intrigue, and the foibles of the fashionable elite. These comedies celebrated clever dialogue and often challenged traditional moral values, reflecting the era's hedonistic tendencies.
Another key development was the rise of heroic drama. These plays, often written in rhyming couplets, featured larger-than-life heroes, epic conflicts, and themes of love and honor. John Dryden’s All for Love is a notable example. This genre, with its emphasis on grandeur and spectacle, mirrored the restored monarchy's desire for pomp and ceremony.
The Restoration also saw significant advancements in satire, often directed at political figures and social customs. John Dryden’s political satire Absalom and Achitophel, using biblical allegory to comment on the Exclusion Crisis, demonstrates the power of literature to engage with and critique the political landscape. Samuel Butler’s satirical poem Hudibras, though begun earlier, gained popularity during the Restoration, lampooning Puritan excesses and hypocrisy.
A Timeline of Power and Pen
| Period | Major Political Events | Corresponding Literary Milestones |
|---|---|---|
| Puritan Age | English Civil War begins (1642) Execution of Charles I (1649) The Interregnum (1649-1660) |
John Milton begins Paradise Lost (early stages) Publication of Anne Bradstreet's The Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up in America (1650) John Bunyan begins his spiritual journey and preaching (leading to later works like Grace Abounding) |
| Restoration Age | Restoration of Charles II (1660) The Great Plague and Fire of London (1665-1666) The Glorious Revolution (1688) |
Reopening of public theaters, emergence of Restoration Comedy Publication of John Milton's Paradise Lost (1667) Flourishing of political satire, e.g., Dryden's Absalom and Achitophel (1681) |
The 17th Century in England: Upheaval, Transformation, and Literature
The 17th century in England was a period of dramatic upheaval and transformation, marked by civil war, regicide, restoration of the monarchy, and a flourishing of literary genius. This tumultuous century witnessed the transition from the Renaissance to the Neoclassical period, with political and social turmoil deeply influencing the literature of the time.
The Jacobean Era (1603–1625): A Golden Age of Drama Continues
The century began with the accession of King James I, uniting the crowns of England and Scotland. This era saw the continuation of the golden age of English drama.
Political Events:
- 1603: James VI of Scotland becomes James I of England.
- 1605: The Gunpowder Plot intensifies anti-Catholic sentiment.
- 1607: First permanent English colony established at Jamestown.
- 1611: The King James Bible published.
- 1620: The Pilgrims sail to America on the Mayflower.
Literary Events:
- Shakespeare writes tragedies: Othello (1604), King Lear (1605), Macbeth (1606).
- Ben Jonson produces comedies like Volpone (1606) and The Alchemist (1610).
- Metaphysical poets like John Donne emerge with witty, intellectual poetry.
The Caroline Era & The English Civil War (1625–1649)
The reign of Charles I was marked by growing conflict between the monarchy and Parliament, leading to the English Civil War.
Political Events:
- 1625: Charles I ascends the throne.
- 1629–1640: Rules without Parliament – the “Eleven Years’ Tyranny.”
- 1642: The English Civil War begins (Royalists vs Parliamentarians).
- 1649: Charles I executed; England declared a Commonwealth.
Literary Events:
- Cavalier poets (Herrick, Lovelace, Suckling) write about love, honor, and loyalty.
- John Milton begins with works like Comus (1634) and Lycidas (1637).
- 1642: Theaters closed by Puritan Parliament.
The Commonwealth & Protectorate (1649–1660)
After Charles I’s execution, England became a republic under Oliver Cromwell.
Political Events:
- 1653: Cromwell becomes Lord Protector.
- 1658: Cromwell dies; succeeded by his son, Richard.
- 1660: Monarchy restored with Charles II.
Literary Events:
- Prose dominates – political pamphlets and religious works.
- Thomas Hobbes publishes Leviathan (1651).
- Milton writes political tracts while serving the Commonwealth.
The Restoration (1660–1700): Wit and Satire
The return of Charles II marked a cultural revival after Puritan rule, with witty literature and new forms of drama.
Political Events:
- 1660: Charles II restored to throne.
- 1665: The Great Plague of London.
- 1666: The Great Fire of London.
- 1688: The Glorious Revolution replaces James II with William & Mary.
- 1689: The Bill of Rights limits monarchy’s power.
Literary Events:
- Restoration Comedy (Wycherley, Congreve) thrives with wit and satire.
- John Dryden becomes the leading literary figure in poetry and criticism.
- Milton publishes Paradise Lost (1667).
- John Bunyan writes The Pilgrim’s Progress (1678).
- Aphra Behn pioneers the early English novel.
The Puritan Age's tumultuous political climate, marked by civil war and the absence of a monarch, fostered a literature deeply concerned with religious and moral questions. The closure of theaters in 1642 by the Puritan Parliament limited dramatic output, pushing literary energies towards religious and political prose, as well as the internal epic.
The Restoration, in stark contrast, brought a renewed emphasis on social life and public entertainment. The reopening of theaters spurred the development of witty comedies that reflected the courtly culture. Political stability (initially, at least) allowed for a more direct engagement with political issues through satire and other literary forms. Milton's Paradise Lost, though rooted in Puritan thought, was published in this era of greater literary freedom, finding a wider audience in a less theocratic society.
Debating Literary Liberation: Puritanism vs. Restoration
Position: Partially Agree
The statement that the Restoration Age liberated English literature from the constraints of Puritan moralism holds significant truth, but it's crucial to acknowledge the nuances. While the Restoration undoubtedly ushered in a period of greater stylistic and thematic freedom, the influence of Puritanism did not entirely vanish.
Firstly, the reopening of theaters in 1660 was a direct rejection of Puritan prohibitions on public entertainment. The flourishing of Restoration Comedy, with its often risqué plots and satirical treatment of social mores, stands in stark contrast to the didacticism often favored by Puritan writers. Plays like Wycherley’s The Country Wife, with its exploration of sexual hypocrisy, would have been unthinkable during the Interregnum. This theatrical revival undeniably expanded the scope of literary expression.
Secondly, the Restoration witnessed a shift in literary patronage and audience. The court and the aristocracy became key influencers, favoring wit, elegance, and a more secular outlook. This led to the development of genres like heroic drama and sophisticated satire that catered to these tastes. Dryden’s career, spanning both dramatic and satirical works, exemplifies this shift in literary focus, moving away from the intense religious introspection prevalent in much Puritan writing.
However, thirdly, the moral and religious concerns of the Puritan era did not simply disappear. While not the dominant mode, religious writing continued, and even within Restoration literature, there were often undercurrents of moral commentary. For example, while Restoration comedies might satirize social vices, they sometimes also offered implicit moral judgments. Furthermore, the enduring influence of works like Paradise Lost demonstrates that the intellectual and theological questions raised during the Puritan Age continued to resonate.
Finally, to suggest complete liberation overlooks the fact that the Restoration brought its own set of constraints, albeit different ones. The patronage system, for instance, could limit artistic freedom, and the focus on a particular social elite narrowed the range of experiences and perspectives represented in literature. While the shackles of strict Puritan morality were loosened, new social and political dynamics shaped literary production.
A Hypothetical Encounter: Milton and Dryden in 1670
Setting: A London coffee house, 1670.
Characters:
John Milton: (61 years old), author of Paradise Lost, blind, still holding firm to many Puritan ideals.
John Dryden: (39 years old), Poet Laureate, successful playwright and satirist, embodying the spirit of the Restoration.
Dryden: (Approaching Milton's table with a courteous bow) Mr. Milton, it is an honor. I have long admired the majesty of your verse, even if our muses often dance to different tunes.
Milton: (Turning his ear towards the voice) Mr. Dryden. I recognize the timbre. A poet of the newer age, I understand. Pray, be seated.
Dryden: Thank you. I was just remarking to a friend on the power of your Paradise Lost. A truly epic undertaking. Tell me, sir, what was your chief aim in crafting such a monumental work? Surely, to instruct as well as to delight?
Milton: Indeed, Mr. Dryden. My purpose was “To justify the ways of God to men.” To explore the profound truths of creation, the fall, and redemption. Literature, in my view, must serve a higher purpose, to elevate the soul and guide humanity towards virtue and understanding of the divine will. The frivolities and licentiousness I see in some of the current theatrical offerings… (He pauses, a hint of disapproval in his tone).
Dryden: (Nodding slightly) I understand your sentiment, sir. But the times have changed. After the austerity of the Interregnum, the people crave amusement, a reflection of their social lives, their wit, and yes, perhaps even their follies. Our comedies aim to entertain, to hold a mirror up to society, allowing us to laugh at ourselves and perhaps, indirectly, learn a thing or two about human nature. And our tragedies, like my Tyrannic Love, explore the passions and complexities of human experience, often with a moral underpinning, albeit less overtly stated than in your epic.
Milton: But does not such entertainment risk corrupting the soul, leading it astray from true piety? Surely, art should inspire reverence and contemplation of eternal truths, not merely fleeting amusement or the glorification of worldly pleasures.
Dryden: With respect, Mr. Milton, I believe literature can serve multiple purposes. While your epic aims for the sublime and the didactic, other forms can engage with the world as it is. Satire, for instance, can be a potent tool for social and political commentary, as I have attempted in Absalom and Achitophel. It uses wit to expose vice and folly, perhaps achieving reform through laughter rather than solemn pronouncements.
Milton: Wit can be a sharp instrument, Mr. Dryden, but it must be wielded with responsibility. I fear it can too easily descend into mere mockery and the erosion of genuine values. The language itself, I find in much of the new poetry, seems to favor a lighter, more conversational tone, sacrificing the grandeur and elevated style necessary for truly profound themes.
Dryden: Style, like society, evolves, Mr. Milton. We strive for clarity and a natural flow, a language that resonates with our contemporary audience. The heroic couplet, for example, offers a structure and elegance that can convey both serious and satirical intent with precision. While I admire the blank verse of Paradise Lost for its power, I find rhyme can lend a certain polish and memorability.
Milton: (Sighs softly) Perhaps we simply view the role of the poet differently. For me, the poet is akin to a prophet, tasked with conveying divine truths and upholding moral standards.
Dryden: And perhaps for us in this age, the poet is more of a social commentator, a chronicler of human behavior, seeking to entertain and, in doing so, perhaps offer subtle insights into the human condition. The stage, the poem, these are our platforms to engage with the world as we find it.
Milton: I pray that the engagement leads to something more than mere diversion, Mr. Dryden. That amidst the laughter and the social commentary, the enduring truths of faith and virtue are not forgotten.
Dryden: I believe, Mr. Milton, that even in our lighter endeavors, the fundamental questions of right and wrong, of human nature's strengths and weaknesses, continue to resonate, perhaps in ways that are more accessible to the spirit of our age.
Conclusion
The seventeenth century in England was a crucible of change, and its literature vividly reflects the seismic shifts in political and religious thought. The intense moral focus of the Puritan Age gave way to the wit and worldliness of the Restoration Age, resulting in distinct literary trends and enduring works that continue to shape our understanding of English culture and the power of language. The imagined dialogue between Milton and Dryden encapsulates the fundamental tensions on the purpose and style of literature during this transformative period.
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